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CONTROLADORES PID

El controlador PID (Proporcional, Integral y Derivativo) es un controlador realimentado cuyo propósito es hacer que el error en estado estacionario, entre la señal de referencia y la señal de salida de la planta, sea cero de manera asintótica en el tiempo, lo que se logra mediante el uso de la acción integral. Además el controlador tiene la capacidad de anticipar el futuro a través de la acción derivativa que tiene un efecto predictivo sobre la salida del proceso.
Históricamente, ya las primeras estructuras de control usaban las ideas del control PID. Sin embargo, no fue hasta el trabajo de Minorsky de 1922, sobre conducción de barcos, que el control PID cobró verdadera importancia teórica.
Hoy en día, a pesar de la abundancia de sofisticadas herramientas y métodos avanzados de control, el controlador PID es aún el más ampliamente utilizado en la industria moderna, controlando más del 95% de los procesos industriales en lazo cerrado.
Los controladores PID son suficientes para resolver el problema de control de muchas aplicaciones en la industria, particularmente cuando la dinámica del proceso lo permite (en general procesos que pueden ser descritos por dinámicas de primer y segundo orden), y los requerimientos de desempeño son modestos (generalmente limitados a especificaciones del comportamiento del error en estado estacionario y una rápida respuesta a cambios en la señal de referencia).
ESTRUCTURA DEL PID

Consideremos un lazo de control de una entrada y una salida (SISO) de un grado de libertad:



Los miembros de la familia de controladores PID, incluyen tres acciones: proporcional (P), integral (I) y derivativa (D). Estos controladores son los denominados P, I, PI, PD y PID.

Otra manera de mostrar un compensador




Planta: Un sistema a ser controlado



Controlador: Provee la excitación para la planta; esta diseñado para controlar el comportamiento del sistema, puede ser:




FUNCIONAMIENTO

Para el correcto funcionamiento de un controlador PID que regule un proceso o sistema se necesita, al menos:

Un sensor, que determine el estado del sistema (termómetro, caudalímetro,etc).
Un controlador, que genere la señal que gobierna al actuador.
Un actuador, que modifique al sistema de manera controlada (resistencia eléctrica, motor, válvula, bomba, etc).
El sensor proporciona una señal analógica al controlador, la cual representa el punto actual en el que se encuentra el proceso o sistema. La señal puede representar ese valor en tensión eléctrica, intensidad de corriente eléctrica o frecuencia. En este último caso la señal es de corriente alterna, a diferencia de los dos anteriores, que son con corriente continua.

El controlador lee una señal externa que representa el valor que se desea alcanzar. Esta señal recibe el nombre de punto de consigna(o punto de referencia), la cual es de la misma naturaleza y tiene el mismo rango de valores que la señal que proporciona el sensor. Para hacer posible esta compatibilidad y que, a su vez, la señal pueda ser entendida por un humano, habrá que establecer algún tipo de interfaz.

El controlador resta la señal de punto actual a la señal de punto de consigna, obteniendo así la señal de error, que determina en cada instante la diferencia que hay entre el valor deseado y el valor medido. La señal de error es utilizada por cada una de las 3 componentes de un controlador PID propiamente dicho para generar las 3 señales que, sumadas, componen la señal que el controlador va a utilizar para gobernar al actuador. La señal resultante de la suma de estas tres señales, que posteriormente explicaremos, se llama variable manipulada y no se aplica directamente sobre el actuador, si no que debe ser transformada para ser compatible con el actuador que usemos.

Las tres componentes de un controlador PID son: parte Proporcional, acción Integral y acción Derivativa. El peso de la influencia que cada una de estas partes tiene en la suma final, viene dado por la constante proporcional, el tiempo integral y el tiempo derivativo, respectivamente.

PROPORCIONAL

Da una salida del controlador que es proporcional al error, es decir:

que descripta desde su función transferencia queda:


Donde Kp es una ganancia proporcional ajustable. Un controlador proporcional puede controlar cualquier planta estable, pero posee desempeño limitado y error en régimen permanente (off-set).

La parte proporcional consiste en el producto entre la señal de error y la constante proporcional. Esta componente PID toma un papel importante cuando la señal de error es grande, pero su acción se ve mermada con la disminución de dicha señal. Este efecto tiene como consecuencia la aparición de un error permanente, que hace que la parte proporcional nunca llegue a solucionar por completo el error del sistema.

La constante proporcional determinará el error permanente, siendo éste menor cuanto mayor sea el valor de la constante proporcional. Se pueden establecer valores suficientemente altos en la constante proporcional como para que hagan que el error permanente sea casi nulo pero, en la mayoría de los casos, estos valores solo serán óptimos en una determinada porción del rango total de control, siendo distintos los valores óptimos para cada porción del rango. Sin embargo, existe también un valor límite en la constante proporcional a partir del cual, en algunos casos, el sistema alcanza valores superiores a los deseados. Este fenómeno se llama sobre oscilación y, por razones de seguridad, no debe sobrepasar el 30%, aunque es conveniente que la parte proporcional ni siquiera produzca sobre oscilación.

La parte proporcional no considera el tiempo, por tanto la mejor manera de solucionar el error permanente y hacer que el sistema contenga alguna componente que tenga en cuenta la variación con respecto al tiempo es incluyendo y configurando las acciones integral y derivativa.

INTEGRAL

Da una salida del controlador que es proporcional al error acumulado, lo que implica que es un modo de controlar lento.


La señal de control u(t) tiene un valor diferente de cero cuando la señal de error e(t) es cero. Por lo que se concluye que dada una referencia constante, o perturbaciones, el error en régimen permanente es cero.

El modo de control Integral tiene como propósito disminuir y eliminar el error en estado estacionario, provocado por el modo proporcional.

El error es integrado, lo cual tiene la función de promediarlo o sumarlo por un periodo de tiempo determinado; Luego es multiplicado por una constante I . I representa la constante de integración. Posteriormente, la respuesta integral es adicionada al modo Proporcional para formar el control P + I con el propósito de obtener una respuesta estable del sistema sin error estacionario.

El modo integral presenta un desfasamiento en la respuesta de 90º que sumados a los 180º de la retroalimentación ( negativa ) acercan al proceso a tener un retraso de 270º, luego entonces solo será necesario que el tiempo muerto contribuya con 90º de retardo para provocar la oscilación del proceso. La ganancia total del lazo de control debe ser menor a 1, y así inducir una atenuación en la salida del controlador para conducir el proceso a estabilidad del mismo.

· PI: acción de control proporcional-integral. Se define mediante:

Donde Ti se denomina tiempo integral y es quien ajusta la acción integral. La función de transferencia resulta:



Con un control proporcional, es necesario que exista error para tener una acción de control distinta de cero. Con acción integral, un error pequeño positivo siempre nos dará una acción de control creciente, y si fuera negativa la señal de control será decreciente.

Este razonamiento sencillo nos muestra que el error en régimen permanente será siempre cero. Muchos controladores industriales tienen solo acción PI. Se puede demostrar que un control PI es adecuado para todos los procesos donde la dinámica es esencialmente de primer orden. Lo que puede demostrarse en forma sencilla, por ejemplo, mediante un ensayo al escalón.

DERIVATIVO

La acción derivativa se manifiesta cuando hay un cambio en el valor absoluto del error; (si el error es constante, solamente actúan los modos proporcional e integral). se define mediante:

El error es la desviación existente entre el punto de medida y el valor consigna, o "Set Point".

La función de la acción derivativa es mantener el error al mínimo corrigiéndolo proporcionalmente con la velocidad misma que se produce; de esta manera evita que el error se incremente.

Se deriva con respecto al tiempo y se multiplica por una constante D y luego se suma a las señales anteriores ( P+I ). Gobernar la respuesta de control a los cambios en el sistema ya que una mayor derivativa corresponde a un cambio más rápido y el controlador puede responder acordemente.

· PD: acción de control proporcional-derivativa. Se define mediante:


Donde Td es una constante de denominada tiempo derivativo. Esta acción tiene carácter de previsión, lo que hace más rápida la acción de control, aunque tiene la desventaja importante que amplifica las señales de ruido y puede provocar saturación en el actuador. La acción de control derivativa nunca se utiliza por sí sola, debido a que solo es eficaz durante periodos transitorios. La función transferencia de un controlador PD resulta:





Cuando una acción de control derivativa se agrega a un controlador proporcional, permite obtener un controlador de alta sensibilidad, es decir que responde a la velocidad del cambio del error y produce una corrección significativa antes de que la magnitud del error se vuelva demasiado grande. Aunque el control derivativo no afecto en forma directa al error sea estado estacionario, añade amortiguamiento al sistema y, por tanto, permite un valor mas grande que la ganancia K, lo cual provoca una mejora en la precisión en estado estable.


· PID: acción de control proporcional-integral-derivativa. Esta acción combinada reúne las ventajas de cada una de las tres acciones de control individuales. La ecuación de un controlador con esta acción combinada se obtiene mediante:


Y su función transferencia resulta:


SIGNIFICADO DE LAS CONSTANTES

P Constante de proporcionalidad: se puede ajustar como el valor de la ganancia del controlador o el porcentaje de banda proporcional.

I constante de integración: indica la velocidad con la que se repite la acción proporcional.

D constante de derivación: hace presente la respuesta de la acción proporcional (duplicándola), sin esperar (a que el error se duplique). El valor indicado por la constante de derivación es el lapso de tiempo durante el cual se manifestará la acción proporcional correspondiente a 2 veces el error y después desaparecerá.

Tanto la acción Integral como la acción Derivativa, afectan a la ganancia dinámica del proceso. La acción integral sirve para reducir el error estacionario, que existiría siempre si la constante Ki fuera nula.

Características de los controladores P, I y D:
Un controlador proporcional (Kp) tendrá el efecto de reducir el tiempo de crecimiento y reducirá (pero no elimina) el error de estado estable. Un control integrativo (Ki) tendrá el efecto de eliminar el error de estado estable, pero sin embargo podría empeorar la respuesta transitoria. Un control derivativo (Kd) tendrá el efecto de aumentar la estabilidad del sistema al disminuir el sobrepico, mejorando la respuesta transitoria. Los efectos de cada uno de los controladores Kp, Kd, y Ki en un sistema de lazo cerrado están resumidos en la tabla que se presenta debajo.

Nótese que estas correlaciones podrían no ser exactamente precisas, ya que el efecto de cada controlador será dependiente de los otros. Por este motivo, la tabla mostrada solo debe ser utilizada como referencia para determinar los valores de Ki, Kp y Kd.
Veamos gráficamente la respuesta de cada uno de los tipos de controladores:





USOS

Por tener una exactitud mayor a los controladores proporcional, proporcional derivativo y proporcional integral se utiliza en aplicaciones más cruciales tales como control de presión, flujo, química, fuerza, velocidad y otras variables. Además es utilizado en reguladores de velocidad de automóviles.


EJEMPLO DE LA APLICACION DE UN CONTROLADOR PID





CONCLUSIONES

* El uso de los modos de control, es siempre conforme a las características del proceso, lo cual significa que debemos entender bien la operación del proceso antes de automatizarlo y de proceder a las rutinas de los algoritmos de control, veamos unos ejemplos:

* El modo On-Off, es un caso especial del modo proporcional aplicable solamente a un proceso estático, ya que la ganancia del On-Off es infinita ( B. P. = 0 ). Cuando solo deseamos dar estabilidad al proceso, el modo proporcional es suficiente.

* Ahora sabemos que el modo proporcional tiene la desventaja de producir un error estacionario (stand by response), para corregirlo es necesario hacerlo integrando el error y ésta es una función del tiempo

Siendo I la denominada constante de integración que representa la ganancia con la que el modo integral contribuye.

· La acción derivativa se usa: CUANDO EXISTE UN CAMBIO DE CARGA y no podemos esperarnos a que la acción integral corrija el error por si sola, entonces medimos la velocidad con la que se produce el error y el controlador responderá con la rapidez necesaria para evitar que el error aumente.

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